Glossary

GENERAL TERMINOLOGY
Free Labor

Gilded Age

Reconstruction Era

SOUTHERN ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
Black Community

Gang Labor

Grandfather Clause

Jim Crow  The Jim Crow Laws were the laws that mandated the de jure segregation that took place primarily, but not exclusively, in the southern states during the late 1870s onwards into the 1960s. Under Jim Crow, African-Americans were relegated to the status of second-class citizens, unable to enjoy the same public facilities as whites, and the complicated system incorporated Jim Crow etiquette e.g. acting appropriately in certain situations, as well as laws. Blacks, for example, were forbidden from offering their hand to a white man to shake it, as this was seen as implying social equality. The Jim Crow laws excluded blacks from certain neighbourhoods, restrooms, restaurants, transport and jobs. The ‘separate but equal’ justification for the segregation was more often than not inaccurate, as the facilities for blacks were generally sub-standard. Jim Crow Laws touched every aspect of life for African-Americans and the legislation was imposed often by violence, threats and even lynchings. Many African-Americans attempted to resist the humiliation of Jim Crow and many paid with their lives.

Ku Klux Klan The KKK was inspired by the economic, physical and emotional hardships caused by the Civil War and reconstruction which had hardened racial attitudes in the South. Whites had always seen freedom to blacks as dangerous to white society as such they saw a strict system of racial control as mandatory to the new order. The Klan was founded in 1866 in Pulaski, Tennessee, by Confederate veterans. Initially the Klan undertook ways to frighten freedmen and played practical jokes on them, and adopted the guise of ghosts of dead Confederate soldiers. The Klan spread quickly through the Southern states with the likes of Grand Wizard Nathan Bedford Forrest widely believed to have been directly involved in the spreading of the message of the Klan. The Klan never achieved a universal leadership, it failed to create a national movement and as such the KKK varied from County to County as Klan’s continued to operate autonomously, with no state headquarters or leadership. The onset of Radical Reconstruction intensified intolerance and racial violence as they attempted to achieve the overriding purpose, the ‘restoration of white supremacy in every walk of life’ (Trelease- ‘White Terror’). The Klan attacked Loyal League’s, Militias, white Republicans (scalawags), carpetbaggers and of course freedmen; these were the main opposition to the restoration of white supremacy. Widely regarded as a political organisation, the violent wing of the Democrat party, the Klan also worked to uphold social and moral standards. The Klan of wore disguises to hide their appearances, dressing as ghosts, in white gowns or sometimes just simply wearing masks or ‘dough-faces.’ 1868-1871, was the period of intense Klan violence as they institutionalised vigilantism; through various methods of violence, mostly involving whipping, beating, shootings and sometimes hanging, and other methods of attack which involved personal degradation. It was only with the implementation of federal intervention and the Ku Klux Klan act in 1871 that the Ku Klux Klan was suppressed.

Literacy Test

Lost Cause The Lost Cause is commonly used to refer to the literary and intellectual movement which took place after the Civil War which attempted to portray the Confederacy’s cause as noble and its leaders as embodying an old-fashioned but honourable chivalry. Their defeat by the Union army was not seen as a result of inferior military ability, but as occurring due to the sheer force of the Union. By attributing their loss to factors beyond their control and to the betrayal of their heroes and their cause, white Southerners were able in some way to feel compensated The term first appeared in the title of an1866 book by Edward Pollard, and a series of articles written for the Southern Historical Society by Lieutenant General Early in the 1870s helped establish the Lost Cause as a literary and cultural phenomenon. The main tenets of the Lost Cause were that slavery was a benign institution, the defence of state’s rights and not the defence of slavery was the main reason that the Southern states seceded from the Union, and that Confederate Generals such as Lee represented the virtues of Southern nobility, whilst Northern Generals were of low moral standards.

Paternalism Paternalism was the term used to describe the relationship that existed between slaves and their masters in the South prior to the Civil War. It characterised slaves as a dependent on their master and envisioned their master would make all their decisions for them, on the crucial assumption that this was for their own good, even if these wishes (as they often were) were contrary to the slaves own. "Paternalism" was however a two way process and in return for slaves dependence and obedience masters were obliged to provide for and protect their slaves. This "care" provided by masters led to a distorted view of Paternalism being the kindest way to look after African-Americans that led many to become puzzled as to why many African-Americans wanted to become free which seemed to them to be a rejection of their Paternalist efforts. Whether emancipation marked the end of Paternalism is one open to debate with some historians claiming planters felt betrayed by their ex-slaves and so denied any responsibility for them and so no longer saw themselves as being obligated to provide for them. Other planters however did continue to feel responsible for their ex-slaves and did continue to provide for them but these were few and far between. The most convincing argument for the continuation of Paternalism in Southern society comes from the construction of the Freedmen's Bureau which attempted to provide ("worthy") blacks esentials previously provided to them by their former masters, such as food, clothing and medicine etc. Foner claims there was no place for Paternalism in the new social order of Reconstruction but traces of it can still be found throughout this era (eg Apprenticeship laws were based on the Paternalistic view that white employers could take care of African-American children in ways their parents could not ie providing food and clothing etc).

Poll Tax

Sharecropping Sharecropping was a system of labour that emerged in the South after the demise of slavery. Few freedmen were able to acquire land of their own, and most plantation owners were unable to pay wages due to the shortage of capital in the post-war South. By 1870 therefore, sharecropping had become the dominant, especially in the cotton regions. Farmers worked for a share of the crop given at the end of the season, rather than periodic wages. Sharecropping resulted in plantations being divided into small family run plots, rather than farmed by gang-labour, which persisted until 1867. As freedmen were only paid in crops at the end of the season they fell into debt to pay for food and supplies. They were forced to grow cotton because of its cash value, and had to give a portion of it to merchants to pay for supplies. As more cotton was grown and prices fell freedmen became increasingly indebted and were tied to the land and system of sharecropping, unable to save any money to one day buy their own land. Sharecropping was desired by neither planters or by the freedmen. Black land-ownership was impossible however, and a return to supervised gang labour unworkable. Sharecropping emerged as a negative product of class conflict and the defeat of these alternatives.

Union Leagues "Union Leagues" were one of a number of organizations established in 1863 and 1864 to promote loyalty to the Union side and Lincoln's policies. They were also known as Loyal Leagues. During this period they comprised of upper middle class men and supported the Republican Party with funding, organizational support, and political activism. Membership in the Leagues at this time was selective, and Union League buildings often served as venues for lavish social events. However during Reconstruction, Union Leagues membership shifted away from upper middle class white men to membership which was predominantly black. Now Union Leagues sought to mobilize freedmen to register to vote and to vote Republican. They discussed political issues, but also promoted civic projects such as funding for schools and churches, and mobilized workers opposed to certain employers. Whilst most branches were segregated there were a few that were racially integrated. The leaders of the all-black units were mostly urban blacks from the North, who had never been slaves. Blacks involvement in these Leagues often led to the black community to hold them in great respect and consequently led to a expansion of black political leadership. Foner (p 283) says "The meteoric rise of the Union League reflected and channeled [blacks] political mobilization" and that "the League now emerged as the political voice of impoverished freedmen". It was due to the popular nature of the Leagues among blacks as well as their involvement in assisting blacks in their communities that led Union Leagues to be seen as a dangerous institution by the Ku Klux Klan and as a result many of its members were targetted by the Klan.

NORTHERN ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
American Women Suffrage Association

Blackface Minstrelsy

Coolies

Knights of Labor

Knights of St. Crispin

National Labor Union

National Women's Suffrage Association

Pennsylvania Railroad

Tammany Hall Tammany Hall was the Democratic political machine in New York City. Between 1858 and 1870 it was controlled by William M. “Boss” Tweed and played an influential role in New York politics. During the Civil War Tammany opposed the rival Democratic machine, Mozart Hall, controlled by the mayor, Fernando Wood. Mozart Hall was pro-Southern, and Wood went as far as to suggest that New York secede from the Union and establish itself as a free city in order to continue trading with the South. Tammany Hall on the other hand was extremely loyal to the Union, and became the more prominent Democratic organisation in the wake of the Draft Riots. Tammany maintained control over the city through patronage and fraud. It appealed particularly to working class Irish voters. Political appointments were rewarded to supporters and government funds were used extensively to appeal to voters. At the same time taxes were kept low, which meant the state debt rose dramatically. Tammany also used widespread fraud to win elections. The Lawrence Committee, for example, was asked by congress to investigate the 1868 presidential election in the city and uncovered a 'systematic plan of gigantic proportions' by the organisation. In 1870-1 the //New York Times// began publishing details of Tammany Hall corruption, which led to the arrest of Tweed and the rise of reforming politicians who called for retrenchment, such as Samuel Tilden.

WESTERN ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
Plains Sioux

Reservation System

Wild West Show

PARTISAN POLITICS
Carpetbagger Carpetbaggers, so-called because they were reportedly able to pack all their earthly belongings into a bag, were Northern Republicans seen by many Southerners as going to the South after the passage of the Reconstruction Act to profit on Southerners misfortunes. Were often seen as being the dregs of Northern society but many were well educated and midddle class in origin. In reality nearly all had travelled South before 1867 when blacks lacked the vote and the prospect of holding office looked remote. For them the South held the same appeal the West did for many Americans-as a field for personal advancement. Most combined with this desire a wish to help the freedmen and as a result acquired the major share of Reconstruction offices. But in no Southern state did they make up even 2% of the total population (Foner) and therefore could hardly provide a voting base for Southern Republicanism. Far more numerous were "Scalawags".

Democratic Party

Doughface

Liberal Republican

Mugwump

Nativist

Radical Republican

Republican Party

Scalawag "Scalawags" were Southern born white Repunlicans who were even more hated by Southerners than "Carpet-baggers". This is because whilst many Southerners despised "Carpet-baggers" intrusion they thought that being Northerners they were acting on their natural Republican affiliations. However many Southerners viewed "Scalawags" as betrayers to the South and even more opportunity grabbing than "Carpet-baggers". "Scalawags" had even more diverse backgrounds and motivations than "Carpet-baggers" but shared the common conviction that they stood a greater chance of advocating their interests in a Republican South. Unlike "Carpet-baggers" who included at least a few Northerners genuinely committed to racial equality, "Scalawags" almost unaminously rejected the idea that black political rights implied "social equality" of any kind. For most the alliance with blacks was purely a marriage of convinience. In the 1870s, many switched from the Republican Party to the conservative-Democrat coalition, who called themselves the "Redeemers". Conservative Democrats replaced all Southern state Republican regimes by 1877.

10% Plan
The 10% plan was Lincoln’s model for reinstating of Southern states into the union during the war. A state could reenter when 10 percent of voters had taken an oath of allegiance to the US and the federal government and pledge to abolish slavery. This was achieved by 1864, in Louisiana and Arkansas where Unionist governments had been established. Lincoln wanted a quick end to the war and a reunification of the country. This policy was countered by Radical Republicans Wade Davis Bill which called for 50% of states legislature to swear an oath of allegiance to the federal government. This was because many feared Planter power would return easily and wanted harsher requirements for the south’s re-admittance. However Lincoln feared that asking 50 %of voters to take a loyalty oath would ruin any chance of ending the war swiftly. There was also the presidential election in 1864, and did not want to seem radical to voters.

13th Amendment
The Thirteenth Amendment was adopted into the United States Constitution and ratified by states on December 6th 1865. This amendment abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. Lincoln was concerned that the Emancipation Proclamation would be seen as a temporary war measure, so the Amendment was a legal guarantee to the permanent abolition of slavery. For more see Special Timelines and scroll down.

14th Amendment
For discussion of 14th, see Slap, //Doom of Reconstruction//, 82-7. The amendment was ratified in July 1868 and granted citizenship to  “all persons born or naturalized in the United States.”  This amendment overruled the Dred Scott v. Sandford  case from 1857 which had excluded slaves and their descendants as citizens and deeming African Americans as property. By directly mentioning the role of the states, the 14th Amendment greatly expanded the protection of civil rights to all Americans and is cited in more litigation than any other amendment. But on the other hand the amendment never ruled against other kinds of oppression, such as the Ku Klux Klan violence used against African Americans expressing their citizenship.

15th Amendment
The 15th amendment was the third and final Reconstruction amendment, which was ratified on the 3rd February 1870. It states that “t he right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”  The amendment represented the culmination of Radical Republican efforts to grant political equality to African-Americans, in theory protecting their right to vote in both the North and the South. In some ways the amendment was revolutionary, as it was the first time the national government had become directly involved in voting rights. In other ways though it was actually quite conservative, as it was limited to what states could not do, rather than saying what Congress could do. The wording meant it was easy for Southern States to bypass, for example through property qualifications, literacy tests, poll taxes or the 'grandfather clause.' After the election of Hayes there was little effort from the North to enforce the amendment in the South. Vorenburg though has argued that the wording was irrelevant, because the Supreme Court had supremacy over Congress, and a deeply rooted legal culture meant nothing could have brought about far reaching change. The courts would be the ultimate arbiters of all the Reconstruction amendments.

Civil Rights Act (1866)
Vetoed by Johnson, but passed over veto with 2/3 majority in Congress.

Civil Rights Act (1870-71)
Introduced by Charles Sumner. Would have prohibited the 'separate but equal' form of discrimination typical of Jim Crow by barring segregation in public accommodations etc. Aggrieved citizens able to file suit in Federal, not state courts. Seen as a liability to the Republican party, Senators eventually pass a much weaker version of the bill, but it fails in the House and never becomes a law. Years later, Supreme Court rule in Plessy v. Ferguson that 'separate but equal' accommodation is acceptable.

Civil Rights Act (1871)
Also known as Ku Klux Klan Act.

Wade Davis Bill (1864)
Emerged as an alternative to Lincoln's more lenient 10% plan. It was proposed by Radical Republicans and aimed to delay the start of Reconstruction until a majority of a state's white males had pledged to support the federal constitution. Only then would elections be held with suffrage being restricted to those who took the ironclad oath which swore they had never in the past supported the Confederacy. The bill passed both houses of Congress on July 2, 1864, but was pocket vetoed by Lincoln and never took effect. The Radical Republicans were outraged that Lincoln did not sign the bill. But Lincoln believed it would be too difficult to repair all of the ties within the union if the bill was passed.The Bill underscored how differently Lincoln and Radical Republicans viewed the Confederates. The President thought they needed to be coaxed back into peaceful coexistence while Wade-Davis treated them as traitors that needed to be punished.